Data Is Energy… Possibly | Math ∞ Weblog

At the very least since Sputnik in 1957, varied assessments and experiences such because the Traits in Worldwide Arithmetic and Science Research (TIMSS) have asserted that college students in the US carry out surprisingly poorly in math and science in comparison with college students in different nations. The poor state of training is a perennial matter in the US. Most individuals want to see higher educating and training. Notably with respect to math and science, this objective is usually phrased by way of producing extra Einsteins or Edisons, distinctive or professional performers who would presumably, so the speculation goes, make extra scientific and technological breakthroughs, spurring progress and financial progress. President Obama returned to this time worn political cliche in his State of the Union 2011 “Sputnik second” speech:

Sustaining our management in analysis and expertise is essential to America’s success. But when we need to win the longer term — if we wish innovation to provide jobs in America and never abroad — then we additionally need to win the race to teach our children.

Give it some thought. Over the following 10 years, practically half of all new jobs would require training that goes past a highschool training. And but, as many as 1 / 4 of our college students aren’t even ending highschool. The standard of our math and science training lags behind many different nations. America has fallen to ninth within the proportion of younger folks with a school diploma. And so the query is whether or not all of us — as residents, and as mother and father — are keen to do what’s crucial to provide each youngster an opportunity to succeed.

This text is a observe as much as Debating Deliberate Follow about Malcolm Gladwell‘s bestseller Outliers and deliberate apply, a idea of professional efficiency developed by psychologist Okay. Anders Ericsson. Outliers has a terrific deal to say about arithmetic and arithmetic training within the chapters titled “Rice Paddies and Math Checks” and “Marita’s Cut price.” Gladwell argues for a discount or elimination of summer time trip and extra work and apply as an answer to the perpetual purported issues with math and normal training in the US. In “Marita’s Cut price” he showcases the KIPP (“Data Is Energy Program“) Academy within the South Bronx in New York Metropolis as an exemplar for a brand new academic system. Most individuals want to see higher educating and training. Many individuals want to know whether or not deliberate apply is the right solution to obtain professional efficiency. This text takes a better take a look at KIPP and the controversies surrounding it with a particular give attention to arithmetic and likewise using arithmetic in public coverage debates.

The Data Is Energy Program, typically referred to by the acronym KIPP, is a nationwide non-profit community of constitution colleges serving deprived interior metropolis neighborhoods such because the South Bronx. The overwhelming majority of scholars at KIPP colleges, most of that are center colleges (fifth by eighth grades), are black and Hispanic kids from poor households. KIPP seemingly has had wonderful outcomes primarily based on standardized assessments of studying and math expertise. Along with its look in Outliers, KIPP has been the topic of a laudatory ebook Work Laborious, Be Good by Washington Put up training author Jay Mathews. KIPP can also be the topic of intense political controversy.

Constitution colleges are a particular form of public college designed, in precept not less than, to keep away from the paperwork and different limitations of conventional public colleges. Constitution colleges will be organized by varied teams, which embrace for-profit college corporations, which apply for and obtain a constitution from the state together with funding for every pupil. The constitution colleges continuously obtain further funding from donations and different sources along with the general public funding. The big majority of constitution colleges are organized and function in poor, deprived, “interior metropolis” areas just like the KIPP constitution colleges. Most college students at constitution colleges are black and Hispanic just like the KIPP constitution colleges. In lots of circumstances the academics at constitution colleges don’t belong to the highly effective academics unions: the American Federation of Lecturers (AFT) and its associates or the Nationwide Training Affiliation (NEA). A considerable variety of constitution colleges are run by for-profit college corporations, referred to as Training Administration Organizations (EMOs). There are suspicions that KIPP is a stealth college firm that may convert from its present non-profit standing to a for-profit college firm to be listed on the inventory market when the time is correct.

The training market in the US is about $500 billion per yr. The US spends about $10,000 per yr per pupil on about 50 million college students. The “Faculty Enrollment in the US — Social and Financial Traits of College students” report from the US Census Bureau (dated October 1999) provides a complete of 49,339,000 college students in public college in the US (Desk A, page3). A complete of 8,556,000 public college college students are recognized as “Black” and eight,081,000 as “Hispanic (of any race)”. The Nationwide Heart for Training Statistics (NCES) experiences that the US spent $9,683 per pupil within the 2006-2007 college yr ($10,041 in inflation adjusted 2007-2008 {dollars} in keeping with the report). The US most likely spends round $160 billion on public training for black and Hispanic college students. Most of this cash is channeled by the standard public college system run and administered by college academics and directors who’re basically civil servants with a excessive diploma of job safety (a tenure system) and most of whom belong to a academics union.

Many conservative, libertarian, and enterprise teams have embraced constitution colleges as a car for varsity reform which frequently seems synonymous with bringing the “miracle of the market” to training and eliminating the unions. As one may think, the training unions and their allies aren’t comfortable about this and customarily have a dim view of the constitution college motion. Constitution colleges have gained vital help in each the Republican and Democratic events, and in liberal in addition to conservative circles. The Obama Administration has made increasing help for constitution colleges part of its training program. Constitution colleges have a combined efficiency document. Some are higher than the standard public colleges of their district, some are about the identical, and a few are worse as measured by standardized check outcomes. The KIPP colleges, in addition to just a few different constitution colleges, nevertheless, seem to have a persistently good document in comparison with comparable conventional public colleges, making them the flagship for proponents of constitution colleges and related reforms, and therein lies the rub.

The primary KIPP college was based in interior metropolis Houston, Texas in 1994 by David Levin and Mike Feinberg, latest alumni of Educate for America (TFA), which is intently related to KIPP. Educate for America was based by Wendy Kopp primarily based on her 1989 Princeton senior thesis proposing a type of Peace Corps by which latest Ivy League graduates would change into academics in deprived interior metropolis colleges. Wendy Kopp and Malcolm Gladwell have appeared collectively to debate training reform on the New York Public Library. Wendy Kopp labored intently with Richard Barth who ultimately grew to become her husband. Richard Barth left TFA to change into an govt at Edison Faculties, the controversial for-profit college firm based by Chris Whittle. After Edison, Richard Barth grew to become the CEO and President of the KIPP Basis. KIPP has grown considerably since 1994. KIPP acquired the substantial backing of the late Donald Fisher, a co-founder of The Hole clothes shops. Fisher was additionally an investor in Edison Faculties. His son John Fisher is the present Chairman of the Board of Administrators of the KIPP Basis.

At one level, Edison Faculties was the darling of conservative, libertarian, and enterprise school-choice/college privatization advocates, arguing {that a} personal for-profit firm listed on the NASDAQ might run colleges extra cost-effectively and with higher outcomes than the inefficient, bureaucratic conventional public colleges dominated by the academics unions. Edison has had many issues. For instance, it apparently value extra for Edison to run a college than a conventional public college. Though Edison nonetheless exists as Edison Studying, its star has dimmed and related hopes seem like now pinned on KIPP and different constitution college operators.

KIPP posts an annual “report card” on its web page for every KIPP college in addition to different info on the KIPP program. There are additionally quite a lot of experiences, each unbiased and funded by KIPP, on the efficiency of KIPP. Determine 1 exhibits the relative check scores for the KIPP Academy New York, the college showcased in Outliers.

The “State Criterion-Referenced Check” appears clear to interpret. The “Norm-Referenced Check: Measures of Tutorial Progress (MAP)” is just not proven (lower off). Though additionally optimistic, the creator discovered the reason of what was being measured incomprehensible.

The “report card” provides the next normal figures in regards to the KIPP Academy New York which can be useful in setting the context.

KIPP ACADEMY NEW YORK

250 East 156th Road, 4th Flooring
Bronx-New York, NY 10451
718-665-3555 | www.kippnyc.org

Faculty chief: Blanca Ruiz
12 months based: 1995
Grades served: 5-8
Scholar enrollment: 268
Variety of academics (FTE): 21
Per pupil funding: $13,675
Facility sort: Supplied by district
Measurement of college: 25,650 sq. ft.

Word: FTE is an acronym for Full Time Equal as in equal to a full time worker. For instance, two part-time workers might make 1 FTE.

Determine Two exhibits the scholar demographics from the “report card”:

There are a selection of KIPP colleges in New York Metropolis. The principle KIPP NYC web page supplies many total statistics together with some statistics on long run outcomes (retrieved April 29, 2011):

To and Via School

• Over the past seven years, 93 p.c of KIPP NYC alumni graduated from highschool. By comparability, 46 p.c of African American and Hispanic college students throughout New York Metropolis graduated from highschool throughout 2005-08.
• 87 p.c of KIPP NYC alumni have matriculated to school. By comparability, 21 p.c of African American and Hispanic male highschool graduates attend school in New York State; 36 p.c of all low revenue New Yorkers ages 18-24 matriculated to school throughout 2003-08.
• To this point, 31 p.c of KIPP NYC alumni have earned bachelors’ levels inside six years of highschool commencement. Our goal is to have 75 p.c of our college students graduate from school. We’re at present on monitor to hit a 50 p.c 6-year commencement price within the subsequent two years; nationally, the faculty completion price in low revenue communities is 10 p.c.

NOTE: The comparisons within the three bullet factors differ. The primary bullet level compares KIPP NYC alumni favorably to African American and Hispanic college students throughout New York Metropolis. The second bullet level compares KIPP NYC alumni favorably to African American and Hispanic male highschool graduates in New York State and all low revenue New Yorkers aged 18-24. The third bullet level compares KIPP NYC alumni favorably to the nationwide school completion price in low revenue communities. This type of slicing and dicing of information ought to make one uneasy and it is extremely simple to do in the present day with extensively obtainable highly effective computer systems and statistical instruments.

Nonetheless, KIPP colleges typically report optimistic outcomes in comparison with comparable conventional public colleges. Has KIPP discovered the magic method for higher training? Is it deliberate apply as Outliers implies?

In the US, there’s a style of film that encompasses a new instructor, continuously younger and idealistic, at a college, continuously in a poor crime-ridden inner-city neighborhood, who, after some issues and setbacks and often a battle with the heartless or narrow-minded college administration, manages to encourage his or her college students, typically a bunch of losers, to carry out spectacularly properly. Some are pretty severe like Harmful Minds by which Michelle Pfeiffer stars as a former US Marine who conjures up (sure) a bunch of losers. Others are excessive just like the Arnold Schwarzenegger movie Kindergarten Cop or The Substitute, which stars Tom Berenger as a mysterious particular forces soldier who substitutes for his instructor girlfriend, who has barely survived an assassination try by a highschool gang, in a troublesome interior metropolis college. The general public relations tales of Educate for America and KIPP very a lot fall inside this custom as Malcolm Gladwell notes in Outliers.

The 1990 film Pump Up The Quantity (not an excellent film) encompasses a star college principal who turns her highschool round, reaching profitable SAT scores, and the adoration of the clueless mother and father. The key to success? The principal illegally engineers the expulsion or elimination of the college’s misfits and losers who rating badly on the SAT check — utilizing trumped up disciplinary expenses and different ways. That is what is named pattern bias. In the event you solely check the nice college students, then you’ll get good scores.

Critics of KIPP and different excessive performing constitution colleges continuously allege a Pump Up The Quantity situation, whether or not intentional or not, to elucidate the check scores. There are two sources of bias which are continuously recommended. First, college students and their mother and father select to use for a place at a KIPP or different constitution college. By default, they’d merely keep at their conventional public college. So there could also be a variety impact by which extra motivated or succesful college students and households apply to the KIPP colleges. This doesn’t require any skullduggery on the a part of the KIPP colleges. Second, college students might depart KIPP after being accepted, identified euphemistically as attrition or pupil mobility. The training enterprise has greater than a bit jargon. It’s right here that the KIPP colleges might consciously, unconsciously, or unintentionally push out the “losers”. Critics typically cite a research by SRI Worldwide (the assume tank in Menlo Park, California previously referred to as the Stanford Analysis Institute) funded by the William and Flora Hewlett (as in Hewlett-Packard) Basis of the KIPP colleges within the San Francisco Bay Space that confirmed a excessive price of attrition in these colleges.

KIPP has retained Mathematica Coverage Analysis Inc. to conduct a complete longitudinal research of the KIPP program and colleges, most likely in no small measure to counter the recommendations that KIPP removes the losers to pump up its numbers just like the nefarious college principal in Pump Up The Quantity. Mathematica has offered a fifty-one web page working paper “Scholar Choice, Attrition, and Substitute in KIPP Center Faculties” on the 2011 Annual Assembly of the American Instructional Analysis Affiliation (AERA). Mathematica has additionally produced an interim preliminary report which is highlighted on the principle KIPP web page. It is a warfare waged with superior statistics, regression fashions, and different subtle, ostensibly scientific, goal instruments.

Fashionable public coverage debates are continuously waged, not less than in public, by assume tanks such because the libertarian Cato Institute or the progressive Heart for Financial and Coverage Analysis (CEPR) (two closely quoted and cited assume tanks within the main media). These assume tanks routinely produce scholarly research, books, experiences, and so forth that often appear fairly subtle, conform to many of the requirements and types of scholarship or science, and continuously incorporate subtle statistical and mathematical analyses. The assume tankers often appear extraordinarily clever, extremely educated, honest, obsessed with their beliefs and dedicated to the reality and the betterment of the world. The one downside is that they nearly all the time produce research and rigorous statistical and scientific analyses that verify their beliefs. With a bit apply, one can often anticipate the place a Cato Insitute or a CEPR will come out on a problem: typically within the type of scholarly research with knowledge, seemingly rigorous analyses, and sometimes subtle statistics. Additionally it is extraordinarily uncommon to discover a assume tank producing a report or research that concludes “we don’t know what’s going on”. Assume tanks reside in an alternate universe the place the assume tankers have all of the solutions even to extraordinarily complicated and puzzling scientific and technical issues.

Now, one can’t declare that assume tankers by no means come to opposite conclusions and reverse their positions as a result of they consider that the buildup of proof fails to help their unique place. For instance, within the present controversies over training, Dianne Ravitch, a scholar and former training official within the George H.W. Bush (Bush I) administration, is well-known for reversing a lot of her views. Nonetheless, that is fairly uncommon and it’s nearly all the time an remoted particular person somewhat than an establishment or organized group. In reality, the apostate will typically withdraw from the now offended establishments or teams. This can be very uncommon to come across something like a retraction or specific reversal of doctrine from a assume tank or related group. Generally these organizations will merely cease speaking about one thing. For instance, many liberal and progressive teams merely stopped speaking about college busing after the Reagan Administration principally killed it within the 1980’s.

How does this occur? Aren’t scientific and statistical strategies supposed to offer definitive solutions in a rigorous goal method? In most of those controversies the place superior statistical strategies are utilized in an try and settle public coverage points “scientifically”, the difficulty of pattern bias or some type of measurement error continuously arises. In apply it’s typically extraordinarily arduous to design an experiment, research, or survey that would not be strongly affected by some type of bias or measurement error. The generally used statistical strategies have restricted potential to unambiguously detect or get rid of bias or measurement error. Thus the everyday “scientific” public coverage debate goes one thing like this:

Free Market Assume Tank: Our new research of widgets exhibits conclusively that the free market widget producers in (insert allegedly free-market oriented group, county, state, or nation right here) outproduce the lazy socialist widget producers in (insert allegedly socialist group, county, state or nation right here) by (insert p.c) share factors. That is statistically vital at a (insert confidence stage right here) stage.

Progressive Assume Tank: That sounds fishy. We can have our workers of passionate younger analysis associates look at the uncooked knowledge. (Suspicious) You do have the uncooked knowledge, don’t you?

Free Market Assume Tank: Er, um, properly, sure, you possibly can lookup the info on (fill in obscure supply of technical knowledge such because the Widget Producers Commerce Affiliation right here).

Progressive Assume Tank: The…(lengthy pause)…Widget Producers Commerce Affiliation? Couldn’t they be biased in favor of their grasping, self-serving company members?

Free Market Assume Tank: Er, um, properly, we’ll examine on that.

(a while passes)

Progressive Assume Tank: Our analysis associates have accomplished their evaluation of your…flawed, biased knowledge and located that the info from the (heavy sarcasm) Widget Producers Commerce Affiliation doesn’t correctly account for (fill in obscure technical difficulty that solely widget manufacturing specialists perceive right here).

Free Market Assume Tank: Not so! Now we have reanalyzed the info from the Widget Producers Commerce Affiliation utilizing the Blowhard Technique (see path-breaking paper by Blowhard et al within the American Journal of Widget Manufacturing) and, properly sure, just a few numbers have modified barely, however our research holds up and stays statistically vital on the (fill in confidence stage right here) stage.

Progressive Assume Tank: The Blowhard Technique? Isn’t Blowhard…(lengthy pause)…the Director of Analysis at Amalgamated Widgets, the infamous multinational anti-union widget producer?

Free Market Assume Tank: Nicely, sure, we go to the highest specialists and properly, heh heh, they all the time appear to work for Amalgamated! They’re the highest widget firm in any case!

Progressive Assume Tank: Nicely, we can have our workers of passionate younger analysis associates take an additional take a look at the info.

Free Market Assume Tank: You do this. In the meantime we will likely be placing out a brand new press launch and showing on CNBC, Fox, and the Colbert Report!

(a while passes)

Progressive Assume Tank: Ahem, we have now discovered that your reanalysis didn’t think about the well-known Sneezer Impact documented in Sneezer et al, within the Worldwide Journal of Widget Manufacturing. Sneezer demonstrated that when widgets are manufactured utilizing the chilly aluminum brazing methodology of Warner and Hancock, the Blowhard Technique is inappropriate and biased. As soon as we account for the Sneezer Impact, your optimistic impact disappears and we discover that the (insert euphemism for socialist right here) widget producers outperform the company widget producers by (fill in share stage right here) p.c on the (insert confidence stage right here) stage. We’re placing out a brand new press launch and showing on CNBC, Rachel Maddow, and the Day by day Present!

This may and sometimes does proceed indefinitely as all sides finds and/or guidelines out varied eventualities below which some type of bias or measurement error might have produced or invalidated the contested outcome (the free market failed, union staff are lazy and so on.). These debates typically get extraordinarily technical and arcane as the particular potential sources of bias or measurement error continuously contain the technical particulars of the particular exercise being debated. Often most third events with out detailed experience in the subject material (e.g. widget manufacturing) can’t observe the talk and lack the time and sources to come back in control on the arcane problems with the subject. They continuously lose curiosity in your complete difficulty or just revert to their ideological biases, preconceived notions and so forth.

The flamboyant statistical methods similar to regression evaluation typically don’t have any or restricted potential to take care of the potential sources of bias. Thus, the accuracy of the quoted statistical outcomes relies on the unique choice or measurement of the info. Even when one can rule out particular eventualities for bias or measurement error, one can often (not all the time) provide you with yet one more situation that requires a brand new experiment, research, or evaluation to rule the brand new situation out. And outright fraud or hoaxing is extraordinarily tough to rule out. One can nearly all the time assemble some type of conspiracy idea to bypass any seeming precautions towards fraud or hoaxing. After all, to take care of one’s severe scholarly repute, one ought to by no means name it a “conspiracy idea.”

This infinite regress by which a brand new doable supply of bias or error replaces every beforehand proposed supply of bias or error as it’s dominated out or demonstrated unlikely happens in lots of scientific controversies, particularly in fringe areas similar to parapsychology or UFOs. Parapsychology is especially related as a result of laboratory parapsychology similar to J.B. Rhine’s well-known research at Duke College entails in depth use of statistics. It really proves extraordinarily arduous to design and perform experiments by which there is no such thing as a doable supply of serious bias, measurement error, or fraud. Fraud or hoaxing. specifically, is usually tough to show and much more tough to conclusively rule out.

It’s tough to know what to make of KIPP. It’s a small program with colleges positioned solely in fairly poor areas by US requirements which are principally out of the creator and possibly most readers’ expertise. Each advocates and critics have probably severe conflicts of curiosity; even a small fraction of $500 billion is a large prize. In violent crime-ridden areas there are strategies of encouraging poorly performing college students to depart or in any other case rigging the outcomes that most likely couldn’t be detected by standard scholarly strategies. This might occur with none precise intent on the a part of the rich KIPP leaders. “Do no matter it takes” can have a really completely different that means within the South Bronx than at Princeton or Yale.

It’s cheap to count on that the longer hours, Saturday lessons, and longer college yr, mixed with extra in depth drilling and so forth might produce substantial measurable advantages, particularly on standardized assessments. “Follow makes good.” and “Follow, apply, apply.” are historic maxims.

If genuine, is KIPP’s success an exemplar of the speculation of deliberate apply proposed by Okay. Anders Ericsson? In a single sense of deliberate apply, it’s clearly not. In some variations of deliberate apply, the necessity to apply comparatively uncommon actions such because the tennis backhand is emphasised. The fundamental arithmetic and primary studying on standardized assessments is usually not uncommon and doesn’t contain uncommon trick questions. Odd apply or expertise might be all that’s wanted to enhance efficiency on these assessments. Certainly this can be one of many variations between math and science training on the Okay (kindergarten) by 12 (twelfth grade) stage versus school and college. Trick issues really appear uncommon in Okay-12 whereas school and college stage math and science exams typically have many extra of those and the preparation strategies taught in Okay-12 college could also be insufficient.

One other sense of deliberate apply is “steady enchancment,” emphasizing steady self-examination of failures. On this sense, the KIPP applications might be examples of deliberate apply judging from the descriptions of KIPP. Certainly, one may count on this to be useful in enhancing efficiency even when deliberate apply is an incomplete and even principally mistaken idea of professional efficiency.

A harder query is what impact the KIPP applications have on normal and summary reasoning expertise which will be tough to measure on standardized assessments, partly as a result of even their nature is poorly understood. If this impact is unfavourable, as I believe it might be if the KIPP strategies are largely equal to rote memorization, then the widespread adoption of KIPP strategies might have a disastrous impact on public training and the financial system. It’s doubtless that these normal and summary reasoning expertise are used closely in main innovations and discoveries, generally known as “breakthroughs”, a particularly uncommon phenomenon typically cited as a justification for training reforms, particularly math and science training reforms.

The overwhelming majority of individuals want to see wonderful colleges that allow a vibrant rising financial system and productive scientific and technological progress. Unionized academics and training entrepreneurs alike, for essentially the most half, most likely agree on the objective of properly educated, comfortable, profitable college students. The query for most individuals of excellent will is the right way to obtain this objective. Seemingly subtle scientific, mathematical, and statistical strategies typically fail to offer the clear solutions that the majority would love and should obfuscate the problems, substituting intimidating mathematical formulation, obscure statistical jargon, and arcane pc programming for real understanding.

Many debates just like the KIPP debate can be improved by the complete disclosure of the uncooked knowledge (particular person assessments and check scores on this case) in addition to the exact pc applications used to research the info. This query has arisen within the context of worldwide warming for instance. With the Web and the World Vast Internet it’s definitely doable to take action. The analyses will be carried out utilizing freely obtainable prime quality statistical instruments similar to R or the MATLAB appropriate instruments Octave or Scilab or quite a lot of others. Conventions may very well be established for the applications and knowledge similar to requiring human readable (plain English) variable and features names that mirror the that means of the perform or variable: e.g. StudentAttritionRate for the scholar attrition price and so forth. Many individuals are intimidated by cryptic symbols and pc code. A degree-and-click, drag-and-drop graphical person interface (GUI) entrance finish to the mathematical scripting code can be useful in making the info evaluation extra accessible and credible to abnormal residents in addition to coverage makers. The wxMaxima entrance finish to the Maxima pc algebra system is a restricted instance of a graphical front-end for a mathematical scripting language. With pupil efficiency knowledge and medical data there are clearly points concerning defending the privateness of the scholars or medical sufferers. With full disclosure, anybody might look at and reproduce your complete knowledge evaluation, step-by-step.

With present statistical strategies, there doesn’t appear to be an excellent, or not less than an excellent well-known solution to take care of the persistent problems with bias and measurement errors or the infinite regress that usually outcomes from these points. Moderately, these central issues are handled in an advert hoc vogue that varies tremendously from subject to subject, maybe essentially. Disclosing uncooked knowledge alone can’t absolutely tackle these issues. It’s, at minimal, essential to have detailed info on how the info was chosen and measured within the disclosure (metadata in pc jargon). Present statistical strategies are most likely insufficient to take care of a few of these bias and measurement points. Partially for these causes, it’s tough to succeed in a definitive conclusion concerning KIPP both as an training reform or as an exemplar of the speculation of deliberate apply.

© 2011 John F. McGowan

In regards to the Writer

John F. McGowan, Ph.D. is a software program developer, analysis scientist, and advisor. He works primarily within the space of complicated algorithms that embody superior mathematical and logical ideas, together with speech recognition and video compression applied sciences. He has in depth expertise growing software program in C, C++, Visible Fundamental, Mathematica, MATLAB, and plenty of different programming languages. He’s most likely finest identified for his AVI Overview, an Web FAQ (Often Requested Questions) on the Microsoft AVI (Audio Video Interleave) file format. He has labored as a contractor at NASA Ames Analysis Heart concerned within the analysis and growth of picture and video processing algorithms and expertise. He has printed articles on the origin and evolution of life, the exploration of Mars (anticipating the invention of methane on Mars), and low cost entry to area. He has a Ph.D. in physics from the College of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and a B.S. in physics from the California Institute of Know-how (Caltech). He will be reached at [email protected].

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